Section 2: Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

1. Epistemology (the study of what and how we come to know) is discussed in multiple chapters in this section. Distinguish epistemology from instructional methods or theories. What are the differences between theories, methods, or models of learning and epistemologies or underlying beliefs about ways of knowing?

In the book, Epistemology is defined as the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of knowledge. It addresses mainly the following questions:

• What is knowledge?
• How is knowledge acquired?

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•  To what extent is it possible for a given subject or entity to be known?

Such beliefs influence the development of knowledge because they are considered to be the central values or theories that are functionally connected to most other beliefs and knowledge (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997).We all have epistemological beliefs. These beliefs influence how we approach, design, and deliver our instructions. I would like to say that Epistemology comes first, then instructional theories, models, and methods. As stated, Epistemology is the explanation of how we think. Without epistemology, we could not think. We need epistemology in order to determine what is true, what is false.

Instructional Methods are the means or ways that we use to teach material to our students. It is an educational  approach  for  turning  knowledge into learning. Instructional  methods  are  the  “how  to”  in  the  delivery  of  instruction. I like to involve my students into my instructions. I am usually trying to use Demonstrations, Collaborative Learning, Cooperative Learning(in Robotics), and Problem-based learning methods in my instructions.

Learning theories make general statements about how people learn. Over many years, behavioral learning theory, cognitive information processing theory, and Gagne's theory of instruction have had a major influence on instructional design. In recent years, schema theory, cognitive load theory, situated learning theory, and constructivism have offered different views of learning and instruction. I usually try to apply Constructivist learning theory in my classes. I never stick to a textbook for my computer and robotics instructions. I research different resources to construct my instruction. 

Instructional models outline the steps on how the process of instruction is to be viewed. These instructional models contain various components that suggest how teaching is to be done. Through these models, teachers can gain understanding and meaningful insights on the whole process of teaching. My favorite instructional models are ADDIE and 5E models. I usually use them in my instructions.

Engagement	Object, event or question used to engage students. Connections facilitated between what students know and can do.
Exploration	Objects and phenomena are explored. Hands-on activities, with guidance.
Explanation	Students explain their understanding of concepts and processes. New concepts and skills are introduced as conceptual clarity and cohesion are sought.
Elaboration	Activities allow students to apply concepts in contexts, and build on or extend understanding and skill.
Evaluation	Students assess their knowledge, skills and abilities. Activities permit evaluation of student development and lesson effectiveness.

5E Model

ADDIE Model

2. Chapters in this section present two contrasting epistemic stances: positivist and relativist. However, a third stance, the contextualist or hermeneutical, is also widely recognized. This stance falls somewhere between the strictly objectivist/positivist beliefs about knowing and the purely subjectivist/relativist stance. While designers and educators with a positivist stance generally apply behaviorist principles to the design and development of instruction, those with either a contextualist or relativist epistemological framework employ constructivist theories and methods. However, relativists ascribe to radical constructivist approaches, while contextualists draw upon social constructivist theories and models. Based on what you’ve read about positivist and relativist epistemologies, as well as behaviorist and constructivist approaches, try to more fully describe a contextualist epistemology. How might it differ from either a relativist or positivist stance, and how might social constructivism differ from either behaviorist or radical constructivist approached to learning and instruction?

Contextualist Epistemology maintains that whether one knows is somehow relative to context. It defines our knowledge as context-dependent. for example, the word “tall.” When we apply the word tall, our correctness is entirely dependent upon the context of our using it – i.e. about whom we are talking, and whom we are comparing. In the context of a second-grade class, we might find that five feet would be a very tall height among the students. In the context of the twelfth grade , we would find that only someone with a height of six feet or more could accurately be considered tall. Thus, what is tall in the context of second grade (five feet) would not be tall in the context of the twelfth grade. As we can intuitively see, the veracity of the ascription of tall depends upon the context in which it is being used.

Relativist epistemology reflects fundamentally different views about the nature of knowledge and knowing. Relativists believe that reality is not directly knowable, and can only be inferred or assigned by convention or consensus. They assume that individuals actively assign different meanings to common objects, events , and circumstances that cannot be judged simply as "correct" or "incorrect" by comparing to convention(Driscoll, 1999;Hannafin & Land, 1997;Hwang, 1996;Wilson, 1996;Yarusso,1992). Relativist epistemology denies objectivity, law of nature (but physical universe works under basic principles), even itself.

Positivist Classroom
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Positivists believe that knowledge exists independent of individuals, that there are absolute truths that exist in the world. The instruction focuses on transferring that knowledge to the learner. Positivist learning environments are generally structured and prescribed to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge and skills deemed important by teachers  The emphasis is placed on the product resulting from the instruction, and the tasks and activities used to move the learner toward creation of the product. I think positivist belief limits students to gain and construct knowledge about given instruction.

Social Constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding (Derry, 1999; McMahon, 1997). 

Social constructivists believe that reality is constructed through human activity. Members of a society together invent the properties of the world (Kukla, 2000). For the social constructivist, reality cannot be discovered: it does not exist prior to its social invention. 

To social constructivists, knowledge is also a human product, and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest, 1999; Gredler, 1997; Prat & Floden, 1994). Individuals create meaning through their interactions with each other and with the environment they live in. 

Social constructivists view learning as a social process. It does not take place only within an individual, nor is it a passive development of behaviors that are shaped by external forces (McMahon, 1997). Meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities. I think Social Constructivism build and enhance interactions between peers and learners.

Radical constructivism proposes that the construction of knowledge takes place solely in the learner's mind and on an individual level. McCarty and Schwandt (2000) explain that according to radical constructivism, concepts form through the learner's experiences with objects or events as the learner notes similarities and differences among the experiences and gradually builds up a concept relating to that object or event.

Behaviorism
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Behaviorism focuses on a change in external behavior achieved through a large amount of repetition of desired actions, the reward of good habits and the discouragement of bad habits. In the classroom this view of learning led to a great deal of repetitive actions, praise for correct outcomes and immediate correction of mistakes. Within the Problem Based Learning environment, students may be encouraged to engage with the learning process and their peers within the group by positive reinforcement from a skilled facilitator to increase positive actions of engagement, contributions and questioning. I agree with many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human behavior and that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts and feelings. Many teachers still use behaviorism epistemology in they instructional designs.

3. Differing epistemic stances lead to differing approaches to learning and instruction, and ultimately to problem-solving. Explain differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives. How do the approaches differ in both the nature of the problem to be solved and in facilitating the problem solving process? Finally, what effect might these differences have on learner motivation?

Behaviorists’ understanding of learning was based on cause and effect. In this conceptualization, a behavior was followed by reinforcement. If the behavior was followed by positive reinforcement, then the behavior was more likely to be repeated; if there was negative reinforcement, the behavior was less likely to be repeated. Two problem-solving methodologies explain the problem solving process within the framework of behaviorist learning theory. One such method is trial and error. This involves attacking the problem by various methods until a solution is found. Young children solving a jigsaw puzzle exhibit this type of problem-solving behavior. The children try fitting different pieces into the same spot until eventually they find the piece that fits.

Constructivist Classroom
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Constructivist learning is based on the active participation of learners in problem-solving and critical thinking - given real and authentic problems.The constructivist approach serves to shift the focus of learning from a teaching focus to a learning focus. It focuses on knowledge construction rather the simply reproduction. Using relevant tasks, the teacher will aim to engage learners in meaningful processes that help them effectively solve a problem. It helps students to extend beyond the content and apply the knowledge constructed to other situations. Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become "expert learners." This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. I am a strong supporter of Constructivist learning style, and always will be. A study done at the University of Texas found that people remember (Metcalf 1997):

• 10 percent of what they read; 
• 20 percent of what they hear; 
• 30 percent of what they see; 
• 50 percent of what they see and hear; 
• 70 percent of what they say;
• 90 percent of what they do and say

To me, constructivist learning provides opportunity to learner to do and say what they learned, that way learner will be able to understand/remember the instruction about 90%.

Behaviorism suggests that motivation results from effective reinforcers. Critics of behavioral approaches to motivation contend that reinforcers detract from intrinsic motivation and cause learners to focus on the reinforcers instead of learning. Reinforcers can be effective, however, if they’re based on quality of the work and communicate increasing competence. First years of my teaching career, I had behaviorism approach to increase students motivation in my classes. I bough a lot of candies from a store. I gave candies to students as a positive reinforcers. Some time later, I noticed that students had been doing the assignments just to get candies.

As for the constructivist viewpoint, motivation seems to be an assumed, existing characteristic within the learner. A constructivist view of motivation is based on the premise that each individual is motivated differently. What may motivate one person to learn a foreign language and keep studying in order to become proficient in a given language will differ from individual to individual. Constructivism stresses the fact that an individual's motivation is a subject to social and contextual influences. Constructivists have also seen motivation as a key component of learning. It not only helps learning, but it is essential for learning. It includes the understanding of the ways in which the possessed knowledge may be used by the learners. I like constructivist approach to motivation so much. With critical-thinking, and group working, students build the motivation and self-esteem by themselves. I had a chance to compare my two different instructional methods in my classes(lecturing, and group working). In lecturing, students were passive, and seemed bored. In group working, within the group they were active. Groups were racing with other groups. Within the group, students help each other to build motivation.
According to my experiences, I can say that constructivist approach motivates learners more than behaviorist approach does.